Code organization
A Miden assembly program is just a sequence of instructions each describing a specific directive or an operation. You can use any combination of whitespace characters to separate one instruction from another.
In turn, Miden assembly instructions are just keywords which can be parameterized by zero or more parameters. The notation for specifying parameters is keyword.param1.param2 - i.e., the parameters are separated by periods. For example, push.123 instruction denotes a push operation which is parameterized by value 123.
Miden assembly programs are organized into procedures. Procedures, in turn, can be grouped into modules.
Procedures¶
A procedure can be used to encapsulate a frequently-used sequence of instructions which can later be invoked via a label. A procedure must start with a proc.<label>.<number of locals> instruction and terminate with an end instruction. For example:
proc.foo.2
<instructions>
end
A procedure label must start with a letter and can contain any combination of numbers, ASCII letters, and underscores (_). The number of characters in the procedure label cannot exceed 100.
The number of locals specifies the number of memory-based local words a procedure can access (via loc_load, loc_store, and other instructions). If a procedure doesn’t need any memory-based locals, this parameter can be omitted or set to 0. A procedure can have at most \(2^{16}\) locals, and the total number of locals available to all procedures at runtime is limited to \(2^{30}\).
To execute a procedure, the exec.<label>, call.<label>, and syscall.<label> instructions can be used. For example:
exec.foo
A procedure may execute any other previously defined procedure, but it cannot execute itself or any of the subsequent procedures. Thus, recursive procedure calls are not possible. For example, the following code block defines a program with two procedures:
proc.foo
<instructions>
end
proc.bar
<instructions>
exec.foo
<instructions>
end
begin
<instructions>
exec.bar
<instructions>
exec.foo
end
Dynamic procedure invocation¶
It is also possible to invoke procedures dynamically - i.e., without specifying target procedure labels at compile time. There are two instructions, dynexec and dyncall, which can be used to execute dynamically-specified code targets. Both instructions expect MAST root of the target to be provided via the stack. The difference between dynexec and dyncall is that dyncall will change context before executing the dynamic code target, while dynexec will cause the code target to be executed in the current context.
Dynamic code execution in the same context is achieved by setting the top \(4\) elements of the stack to the hash of the dynamic code block and then executing the following instruction:
dynexec
This causes the VM to do the following:
- Read the top 4 elements of the stack to get the hash of the dynamic target (leaving the stack unchanged).
- Execute the code block which hashes to the specified target. The VM must know the specified code block and hash (they must be in the CodeBlockTable of the executing Program).
Dynamic code execution in a new context can be achieved similarly by setting the top \(4\) elements of the stack to the hash of the dynamic code block and then executing the following instruction:
dyncall
Note
In both cases, the stack is left unchanged. Therefore, if the dynamic code is intended to manipulate the stack, it should start by either dropping or moving the code block hash from the top of the stack.
Modules¶
A module consists of one or more procedures. There are two types of modules: library modules and executable modules (also called programs).
Library modules¶
Library modules contain zero or more internal procedures and one or more exported procedures. For example, the following module defines one internal procedure (defined with proc instruction) and one exported procedure (defined with export instruction):
proc.foo
<instructions>
end
export.bar
<instructions>
exec.foo
<instructions>
end
Programs¶
Executable modules are used to define programs. A program contains zero or more internal procedures (defined with proc instruction) and exactly one main procedure (defined with begin instruction). For example, the following module defines one internal procedure and a main procedure:
proc.foo
<instructions>
end
begin
<instructions>
exec.foo
<instructions>
end
A program cannot contain any exported procedures.
When a program is executed, the execution starts at the first instruction following the begin instruction. The main procedure is expected to be the last procedure in the program and can be followed only by comments.
Importing modules¶
To invoke a procedure from an external module, the module first needs to be imported using a use instruction. Once a module is imported, procedures from this module can be invoked via the regular exec or call instructions as exec|call.<module>::<label> where label is the name of the procedure. For example:
use.std::math::u64
begin
push.1.0
push.2.0
exec.u64::checked_add
end
In the above example we import std::math::u64 module from the standard library. We then execute a program which pushes two 64-bit integers onto the stack, and then invokes a 64-bit addition procedure from the imported module.
We can also define aliases for imported modules. For example:
use.std::math::u64->bigint
begin
push.1.0
push.2.0
exec.bigint::checked_add
end
The set of modules which can be imported by a program can be specified via a Module Provider when instantiating the Miden Assembler used to compile the program.
Re-exporting procedures¶
A procedure defined in one module can be re-exported from a different module under the same or a different name. For example:
use.std::math::u64
export.u64::add
export.u64::mul->mul64
export.foo
<instructions>
end
In addition to the locally-defined procedure foo, the above module also exports procedures add and mul64 implementations of which will be identical to add and mul procedures from the std::math::u64 module respectively.
Constants¶
Miden assembly supports constant declarations. These constants are scoped to the module they are defined in and can be used as immediate parameters for Miden assembly instructions. Constants are supported as immediate values for the following instructions: push, assert, assertz, asert_eq, assert_eqw, locaddr, loc_load, loc_loadw, loc_store, loc_storew, mem_load, mem_loadw, mem_store, mem_storew.
Constants must be declared right after module imports and before any procedures or program bodies. A constant’s name must start with an upper-case letter and can contain any combination of numbers, upper-case ASCII letters, and underscores (_). The number of characters in a constant name cannot exceed 100.
A constant’s value must be in the range between \(0\) and \(2^{64} - 2^{32}\) (both inclusive) and can be defined by an arithmetic expression using +, -, *, /, //, (, ) operators and references to the previously defined constants. Here / is a field division and // is an integer division. Note that the arithmetic expression cannot contain spaces.
use.std::math::u64
const.CONSTANT_1=100
const.CONSTANT_2=200+(CONSTANT_1-50)
const.ADDR_1=3
begin
push.CONSTANT_1.CONSTANT_2
exec.u64::checked_add
mem_store.ADDR_1
end
Comments¶
Miden assembly allows annotating code with simple comments. There are two types of comments: single-line comments which start with a # (pound) character, and documentation comments which start with #! characters. For example:
#! This is a documentation comment
export.foo
# this is a comment
push.1
end
Documentation comments must precede a procedure declaration. Using them inside a procedure body is an error.